Mountain lion Puma concolor Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Felidae Dudek and Associates Species Accounts Status: Federal: None State: State Protected Species Data Characterization There are 20 data locations for the mountain lion in the MSHCP data base. Of these 20 locations, 12 have a precision code of 1 (i.e., an "x" and "y" coordinate, two have a code of 2 (one "x" or "y" coordinate or equivalent), four have code of 3 (generalized location), and two have a code of 4 (an ambiguous location). Dates of the locations range from 1981 to 1999. Geographic locations for mountain lions in the data base are mostly from the southwestern areas of the Santa Rosa Plateau, Lake Mathews, El Cerrito, Gavilan Hills, Sedco Hills, and Wildomar, but four are from the Sage area and one from the Box Spring Mountain area. Important habitat areas and linkages for mountain lions generally are known, but additional considerations such as wildlife crossings, adjacent land uses, etc., will be required for reserve design. Habitat and Habitat Associations Mountain lions use rocky areas, cliffs, and ledges that provide cover within open woodlands and chaparral, as well as riparian areas that provide protective habitat connections for movement between fragmented core habitat. A study of diurnal bedding habitat in northeast Oregon suggests that lions also need both vertical and horizontal cover components, such as rocks and downed logs, to feel secure enough to bed (Akenson et al. 1996). Biogeography Mountain lions occupy a latitudinal range of 110 degrees in North and South America and occupy a broad variety of habitats from the northern limit of the Canadian forests to Patagonia in South America. Within western Riverside County, mountain lions are found intermittently throughout the mountainous and foothill regions. Range Mountain lions occur in the Santa Ana Mountains, San Bernardino Mountains, San Jacinto Mountains, Santa Rosa Mountains and adjacent brushy foothills and riparian areas that may serve as habitat connections for movement between core mountainous areas. Key Populations in Planning Area Mountain lions occur in the Santa Ana Mountains, San Bernardino Mountains, San Jacinto Mountains, Santa Rosa Mountains and adjacent brushy foothills and riparian areas that may serve as habitat connections for movement between core mountainous areas. Biology Genetics: Thirty subspecies of mountain lions have been described. Preliminary genetic studies using both mitochondrial DNA and nuclear microsatellites as molecular markers, however, have determined that North American populations of mountain lions have relatively low genetic variation (Culver et al. 1996). This finding is significant for conservation planning because reintroduction programs have to be less concerned about introducing genetically distinct individuals Diet: The diet of mountain lions includes mule deer as their principal prey, but also other ungulates, rabbits and larger rodents (Ackerman et al. 1984; Cunningham 1996; Leopold 1986; Peirce and Cashman 1996; Spalding and Lesowski 1971). In the Ackerman et al. (1984) study in southern Utah, deer more than seven years old were disproportionately taken by lions and cattle made up less than 1% of their diet. However, Cunningham (1996) and Peirce and Cashman (1996) found that cattle are a more substantial component of the mountain lion's diet in Arizona. In southern California, Arizona, and New Mexico mountain lions also are known to prey on desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) (Krausman et al. 1989; Logan et al. 1996a; Peirce and Cashman 1996; Rubin et al. 1996). Hemker et al. (1984) suggest that the density of resident mountain lions in southern Utah is limited by the abundance of mule deer. Leopold et al. (1986) and Peirce and Cashman (1996) suggest that mountain lions change diets to smaller prey when ungulate populations (deer, desert bighorn, collared peccary [Tayassu tajacu]) decline. Daily Activity: Studies of general activity patterns of lions suggest that lions have peaks of activity around sunset and sunrise (Laundré et al. 1996; Van Dyke et al. 1986). Laundré et al. (1996) found that lions in south-cental Idaho and northwestern Utah moved approximately 10 miles (males) to 12 miles (females) per day and that most of the day was spent in low level activities of walking and feeding. Survival: A study of lion cub survival rates indicate that annual survival rates of unhunted lions in southern New Mexico is about 70-72%, depending on the method for calculating survival (Logan et al. 1996b). Natural causes of mortality, in order of frequency, include cannibalism, starvation, disease, accidental fall and coyote predation (Logan et al. 1996b). Mean annual subadult survival was 87% for females and 60% for males, and all deaths were from intraspecific killing. Mean annual adult female survival was 81% and male survival was 90%. Socio-Spatial Behavior: Socio-spatial information (home range, spatial overlap, population densities) for mountain lions is quite variable. Padley (1989, 1996) monitored female home ranges in the Santa Ana Mountains. He found that annual home ranges varied from 32 to 87 sq. miles, with a mean range of 43 sq. miles, and that home ranges of females with kittens were smaller. Padley also found that home ranges were stable from year to year and suggested that this stability may be related to the abundance of mule deer populations. Loft (1996) reported average male home ranges of 139 sq. miles in the winter and 176 sq. miles in the summer in the Sierra Nevadas. Average female home ranges were 63 and 117 sq. miles in the winter and summer, respectively. Mean spatial overlap of ranges in this study was 32% between females, 23% between males, and 31% between sexes. Lion densities were 1.2 to 2.0 lions per 100 sq. miles in the summer and 1.4 to 3.0 in the winter. Peirce and Cashman (1996) recorded home ranges of 93, 159, and 304 sq. miles in southwestern Arizona. Pittman et al. (1996) recorded male home ranges of 122 to 350 sq. miles and female home ranges of 78 to 150 sq. miles in the Trans-Pecos region of Texas. Based on a study of mountain lion feeding habits in the eastern Sierra Nevada, Pierce et al. (1996) suggest that prey density may be the most important factor regulating mountain lion populations. ] Reproduction: Sweanor et al. (1996a) studied the reproductive biology of mountains lions in the San Andres Mountains of southern New Mexico from 1986 to 1994. Thirty-nine females produced 79 litters, with an average size of 3.02 cubs (range 2-4) in 53 litters observed in the first 9-49 days. Twenty-one litters observed from 52-427 days had a mean litter size of 2.19 cubs. Sex ratios were virtually equal in the litters observed in the first 9-49 days, but females outnumbered males in the litters observed from 52-427 days, indicating sex-related mortality in litters. Average gestation period was 91.5 days and litters were born every month except February, with peaks in August and September. Females appear to begin consorting with males at about age 21 months and first litters are produced at ages 22-40 months. There was substantial variation in female reproductive success in this population. While 39 of 53 (73%) females reproduced, 50% of the cubs were produced by only 26% of the females. Interbirth intervals for litters in which at least one cub survived to independence or 12 months of age averaged 17.4 months. After the loss of a litter, it took females an average of 100 days to successfully rebreed. Dispersal: A study of dispersal by juvenile mountain lions in the Santa Ana Mountain Range showed that dispersal is initiated by the mother abandoning her cub of about 18 months at the edge of her range (Beier 1996). The cub disperses to the part of urban-wildlife interface farthest from its natal range and uses temporary home ranges near this interface. Beier (1996) also observed dispersing individuals using corridors along well covered travel routes, an underpass, areas lacking artificial lighting, and areas with low residential densities (<1 dwelling unit/16 hectares). A dispersal study by Sweanor et al. (1996b) of a population in the San Andres Mountains of southern New Mexico showed dispersal at an average of 13.5 months for females and 15.7 months for males. Sixty percent of the females did not disperse from their natal range, whereas all males did. Females dispersed on average 7.7 miles and males dispersed on average 62.8 miles. Over the five-year study period, 21 progeny and 22 immigrants were recruited into the San Andres Mountains, and 47 progeny successfully dispersed outside of the mountain range. Threats The primary threats to the mountain lion are habitat fragmentation, loss of large areas of undeveloped land, road kills, indiscriminate shootings, animal control measures, and loss of natural prey base. Using a simulation model, Beier (1993) estimated that lions were at a low extinction risk in areas at least 2,200 sq. km. in size (about 544,000 acres). The risk of extinction increases in smaller areas in the absence of immigration. For example, Beier (1993) estimated that the mountain lion population of about 20 adults in the Santa Ana Mountains in an area of 2,070 sq. km. was demographically unstable and that a movement corridor connection to Palomar Mountain Range to the east will be important for sustaining this population. Human presence also may have adverse effects on mountain lion behavior, and in particular range use and foraging activities. For example, Van Dyke et al. (1986) studied the reactions of mountain lions to logging and human activity and found that near human presence, lion activity peaks shifted to periods after sunset compared to areas with no human activity where activity peaks occurred within two hours of sunset and sunrise. In addition, juvenile lions encountered humans more frequently than adult lions, suggesting that dispersing juveniles are at relatively high risk of encounters with humans. Selected home ranges of both adults and juveniles were in areas with lower road densities, no recent timber sales, and few or no human residences. On the other hand, Jalkotzy and Ross (1996) found that mountain lions were relatively unaffected by summertime human activity (vehicular traffic and camping, equestrian and hiking activities) at Sheep River, Alberta, Canada, although they did suggest that lions may be more sensitive at kill sites than along travel routes. Mountain lions are at risk to a variety of diseases, including feline immunodeficiency virus, feline leukemia virus, feline infectious peritonitis, canine distemper, panleukopenia, and rabies (Foley 1996). Mortality from diseases is a potential catastrophe for small, isolated mountain populations. Special Biological Considerations Mountain lions require large areas for hunting their preferred prey (mule deer) and Beier (1993) has shown through modeling that lion populations require at least 850 sq. miles to remain stable. Human developments have intruded upon, greatly reduced and fragmented this required habitat, thus resulting in apparent increased interactions between humans and mountain lions (e.g., Torres et al. 1996). This interaction has resulted in adverse impacts on mountain lions in addition to habitat loss and fragmentation: increased mortality of lions from vehicular collisions; and apparent loss of fear of humans by lions and consequently more frequent aggressive behavior toward humans (especially by juvenile lions). Sustaining mountain lion populations in the Peninsular Mountains Ranges (the San Bernardino, San Jacinto, Santa Rosa, Palomar, Laguna, and Santa Ana ranges) will require substantial habitat linkages between ranges. The connection between the Santa Ana and Palomar ranges already is extremely constrained by Interstate 15 and the Santa Ana population is at serious risk of extirpation. A wildlife overpass is under consideration for Interstate 15 (Robert Fisher, pers. comm.). The work of Sweanor et al. (1996a) indicates that females exhibit substantial variation in reproductive success; 50% of the offspring were produced by 26% of the females. It is likely that male productivity is even more variable. With such variability in production, small, isolated populations are at relatively greater risk of losing highly productive individuals and more prone to breeding depression and local extinction. The relatively low genetic variation found by Culver et al. (1996) is significant for conservation planning because reintroduction programs have to be less concerned about introducing genetically distinct individuals. Finally, maintaining an adequate prey base of mule deer in the region will be crucial for sustaining the mountain lion. Literature Cited Ackerman, B.B., F.G. Lindzey, and T.P. Hemker. 1984. Cougar food habitats in southern Utah. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:147-155. Akenson, J. , M. Henjum, and T. Craddock. 1996. Diurnal bedding habitat of mountain lions in northeast Oregon. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Beier, P. 1996. Dispersal of juvenile cougars in fragmented habitat. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Beier, P. 1993. Determining minimum habitat areas and habitat corridors for cougars. Conservation Biology 7:94-108. Beier, P. 1995. Dispersal of juvenile cougars in fragmented habitat. Journal of Wildlife Management 59:228-237. Culver, M., M. Raymond, W. Johnson, M. Roelke, and S. O'Brien. 1996. Characterization of genetic variation in the puma (Puma concolor). [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Cunningham, S.C. 1996. Prey availability and selection by mountain lions in the Aravaipa-Klondyke area of Arizona. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Fisher, Robert. 9 June 1999. Personal communication regarding wildlife distribution and planning issues. Foley, J. 1996. The role of infectious disease in population control and regulation of western mountain lions. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Hemker, T.P., F.G. Lindzey, and B.B. Ackerman. 1984. Population characteristics and movement patterns of cougars in southern Utah. Journal of Wildlife Management 48:1275-1284. Jalkotzy, M.G. and Ross, I.P. 1996. Cougar responses to human activity at Sheep River, Alberta. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Koehler, G.M. and M.G. Hornocker. 1991. Seasonal resource use among mountain lions, bobcats, and coyotes. Journal of Mammalogy 72:391-396. Krausman, P.R., B.D. Leopold, R.F. Seegmiller, and S.G. Torres. 1989. Relationships between desert bighorn sheep and habitat in western Arizona. Wildlife Monographs 102:1-66. Laundré, J.W., C.A. López-González, and K.B. Altendorf. 1996. Daily and hourly summer activity levels of free roaming mountain lions. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Loft, E.R. 1996. Spatial-temporal analyses of mountain lions in the Sierra Nevada: looking for pattens and "bulls-eyes" amid the mess. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Leopold, B.D. and Krausman, P.R. 1986. Diets of 3 predators in Big Bend National Park, Texas, Journal of Wildlife Management 50:290-295. Logan, K.A. , L.L. Sweanor, and M.G. Hornocker. 1996a. Effects of cougar (Felis concolor) predation on desert bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana) in the San Andres Mountains, New Mexico. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Logan, K.A. , L.L. Sweanor, and M.G. Hornocker. 1996b. Survival and mortality of cougars (Felis concolor) in the San Andres Mountains, New Mexico. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Murphy, K.M., G.S. Felzien, M.G. Hornocker, and T.K. Ruth. 1996. Ecological relationships between bears and predation by cougars on ungulates. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Padley, W.D. 1996. Female mountain lion (Felis concolor) home ranges in the southern Santa Ana Mountains, California. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Padley, W.D. 1989. Mountain lion ecology in the southern Santa Ana Mountains, California. Prepared for the California Department of Fish and Game, Final Report Contract No. 87-M-6250, 27 pages. Peirce, M.F. and J.L. Cashman. 1996. Movements and diets of mountain lions in southwestern Arizona. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Pierce, B. 1996. Implications of mountain lion movements for population regulation and conservation. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Pittman, M.T., B.P. McKinney, and G. Guzman. 1996. Ecology of the mountain lion on Big Bend Ranch State Park in Trans-Pecos Texas. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Rubin, E., W. Boyce, C. Hayes, S. Torres, and M. Jorgensen. 1996. Mountain lion predation on bighorn sheep in the peninsular ranges of California. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Ruth, T.K. and M.G. Hornocker. 1996. Interactions between cougars and wolves (and a bear or two) in the north fork of the Flathead River, Montana. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Spalding, D.J. and J. Lesowski. Winter food of the cougar in south-central British Columbia. Journal of Wildlife Management 35:378-381. Sweanor, L.L., K.A. Logan, and M.G. Hornocker. 1996a. Reproductive biology of female cougars (Felis concolor) in the San Andres Mountains, New Mexico. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Sweanor, L.L., K.A. Logan, and M.G. Hornocker. 1996b. Dispersal of cougars (Felis concolor) in metapopulation dynamics. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Torres, S.G., T.M. Mansfield, and J. Foley. 1996. Mountain lion depredation and human activity in California: testing speculations. [Abstract]. Fifth Mountain Lion Workshop. Organized by the California Department of Fish and Game and the Southern California Chapter of the Wildlife Society, San Diego, California, February 27 - March 1, 1996. Van Dyke, F.G., Brocke R.H, H.G. Shaw, B.B. Ackerman, T.P. Hemker, and F.G. Lindzey. 1986. Reactions of mountain lions to logging and human activity. Journal of Wildlife Management 50:95-102.